Epic narrative of Odysseus's ten-year voyage home from Troy.
Overview
The Odyssey is a major archaic Greek epic, traditionally attributed to Homer. It is one of the two main Panhellenic epics of Greek literature. The poem belongs to the Returns from Troy (Nostoi) within the larger Trojan Cycle and tells of the generation after the Trojan War at the end of the Heroic Age.
In this story, Odysseus tries to return home from Troy but is delayed for many years. He wanders across seas filled with monsters and ruled by divine powers. At last he reaches Ithaca in disguise, defeats the suitors who surround his wife Penelope, and restores order in his kingdom.
The Odyssey is an epic voyage and homecoming story (nostos). It shows Odysseus’s struggle to win back his household and kingship while dealing with the divided attitudes of the gods. Athena favors him and helps him, while Poseidon opposes him and tries to block his return.
Background
The Odyssey takes place after the Trojan War. It assumes earlier events such as the fall of Troy, which was won in part through Odysseus’s trick of the Wooden Horse, and the departures of the Greek leaders on their different journeys home (Nostoi).
Odysseus’s troubles come from his role in the sack of Troy and from offenses against certain gods, especially Poseidon. Poseidon’s anger grows even stronger after Odysseus blinds the Cyclops Polyphemus.
In terms of family, Odysseus is king of Ithaca, husband of Penelope, and father of Telemachus. Telemachus is old enough to act but is not yet firmly established as ruler when the story begins. Politically, with the war over, the Greek kings try to regain their power at home. In Ithaca, Odysseus’s long absence creates a power gap. Local nobles take advantage of this, court Penelope, and consume the royal wealth.
Among the gods there is a clear division. Athena steadily supports Odysseus, while Poseidon tries to stop his return. The mythic setting stretches from Ithaca, a small island kingdom in the Ionian Sea whose stability depends on Odysseus, to a wider world that mixes known Greek regions with distant, fantastical islands inhabited by monsters and divine or semi-divine beings.
The Odyssey is closely linked to other Trojan Cycle myths, especially the Iliad and the various Nostoi stories about the returns of Agamemnon, Menelaus, and other Achaean leaders. It ultimately goes back to the earlier oath of the Greek leaders to help Menelaus recover Helen, which first took Odysseus away from Ithaca.
Within this network of stories, the Odyssey explains what happens to Odysseus after Troy, how legitimate kingship is restored in Ithaca, and offers a model story of nostos and of the trials the gods place on a hero who is favored but also flawed.
Plot Summary
The Odyssey follows Odysseus’s delayed return from Troy. It weaves together events in Ithaca, his sea wanderings, and his final homecoming in disguise. The story ends with the destruction of the suitors and the return of order in his household and kingdom.
The poem is usually divided into several parts. The Telemachy (Books 1–4) shows the situation in Ithaca and Telemachus’s journey. Books 5–8 tell of Odysseus’s release from the island of Ogygia and his voyage to Phaeacia. In Books 9–12, Odysseus himself tells the story of his wanderings from Troy to Ogygia. Books 13–22 cover his return to Ithaca in disguise, the recognition scenes, and his revenge on the suitors. Books 23–24 show the aftermath and reconciliation in Ithaca.
The action begins when the gods, urged by Athena, decide that Odysseus must be freed from his long stay on Ogygia and allowed to go home. At the same time, in Ithaca, the suitors grow more violent and wasteful. They threaten Telemachus and the stability of the kingdom.
Athena goes to Ithaca in disguise. She encourages Telemachus and sends him to look for news of his father. Telemachus travels to Pylos and Sparta. There, Nestor and Menelaus tell him about other heroes’ returns, and Menelaus reveals that Odysseus is alive but held on an island.
Meanwhile, Hermes goes to Ogygia and orders Calypso to release Odysseus. Odysseus builds a raft and leaves, but Poseidon shipwrecks him. With help from Ino and Athena he reaches the land of the Phaeacians.
In Phaeacia, King Alcinous and Queen Arete receive him kindly. At first he hides his identity. When a bard sings about Troy, he is moved to tears, reveals who he is, and tells the story of his earlier wanderings.
In this long flashback he describes a raid on the Cicones and the storm that drives his fleet off course. He tells of the Lotus-Eaters, whose plant makes men forget home; the Cyclops Polyphemus, whom he blinds to escape, bringing down Poseidon’s curse; and his stay with Aeolus, keeper of the winds, whose bag of winds his crew wastes.
He then recalls the visit to the cannibalistic Laestrygonians, who destroy all but one ship; the time with the sorceress Circe, who turns some of his men into swine before restoring them and hosting them; and his descent to the Underworld to consult the seer Tiresias and meet the shades of heroes and kin.
He goes on to describe sailing past the Sirens, whose song he survives by being tied to the mast while his crew’s ears are plugged with wax; passing between Scylla and Charybdis, where some of his men are eaten; and the stay on Thrinacia, where his men kill the sacred cattle of Helios despite warnings. Zeus then destroys the ship, and only Odysseus survives. He drifts to Ogygia, where Calypso keeps him until the gods order his release.
After hearing his story, the Phaeacians secretly take Odysseus to Ithaca with rich gifts. When he wakes there, Athena tells him about the situation at home and disguises him as a beggar.
Odysseus goes to his loyal swineherd Eumaeus. When Telemachus returns from Sparta, father and son meet and recognize each other. Still in disguise, Odysseus enters his palace, puts up with insults from the suitors, and tests the loyalty of the servants and of Penelope.
Penelope announces an archery contest using Odysseus’s bow. The suitors cannot string it. Odysseus strings it easily, reveals himself, and, with Telemachus and a few loyal servants, kills the suitors and punishes the disloyal servants.
He and Penelope are reunited after she tests his identity using the secret of their immovable bed. The souls of the suitors go down to the Underworld. Odysseus then visits his father Laertes, confirming his lineage.
When the relatives of the dead suitors arm themselves for revenge, Athena steps in and forces peace, ending the cycle of bloodshed.
The high point of the poem is the archery contest and the killing of the suitors in Odysseus’s hall, where he throws off his disguise, reveals who he is, and violently clears his household. The ending shows his recognition and reconciliation with Penelope, the renewed bond with Laertes, and the gods’ imposition of peace in Ithaca.
Later stories mention more adventures of Odysseus, but these lie beyond the poem. The Odyssey itself ends with Odysseus regaining his home, family, and kingship, the destruction of the suitors, and the return of social order under divine approval.
Key Figures
The main figure in the Odyssey is Odysseus. He is a wandering hero and strategist who also becomes the narrator of his own travels. He struggles to return from Troy, faces divine and monstrous dangers, and finally wins back his household and kingship in Ithaca.
Penelope, his wife, stays in Ithaca. She is shown as loyal and steadfast. She delays remarriage through tricks such as her weaving ruse and later tests Odysseus’s identity when he returns.
Their son Telemachus grows up during the story. He travels to seek news of his father and, when Odysseus returns, joins him in killing the suitors and restoring order.
Important supporting figures include Eumaeus, the loyal swineherd who shelters Odysseus in disguise, helps in his recognition by Telemachus, and fights against the suitors. Eurycleia, Odysseus’s old nurse, recognizes him by a scar while he is still disguised and later points out the disloyal maidservants. Laertes, Odysseus’s father, lives in semi-retirement on a farm. His reunion with Odysseus marks the full restoration of the family line.
In Phaeacia, King Alcinous welcomes Odysseus, listens to his story, and orders his safe return to Ithaca. Queen Arete, a powerful figure at court, receives his plea and supports his request. Their daughter Nausicaa finds Odysseus shipwrecked and guides him to the palace.
Among the supernatural and semi-divine figures, Circe is a sorceress who first turns Odysseus’s men into swine, then becomes a host and advisor. She sends him to the Underworld and warns him about future dangers. Calypso is the nymph who keeps him on Ogygia for years and offers him immortality before letting him go under divine command. Tiresias is the blind seer in the Underworld who gives key prophecies and instructions for reaching home and calming the gods.
The main human enemies in Ithaca are the suitors. They are a group of noblemen who court Penelope, use up Odysseus’s wealth, and plot against Telemachus. They are all killed in the end. Antinous is their most aggressive leader and the first to die, while Eurymachus is an important figure who tries to bargain once Odysseus reveals himself.
In the divine realm, Athena is Odysseus’s patron and protector. She speaks for him among the gods, helps Telemachus, disguises Odysseus, and arranges the final peace. Poseidon is the angry sea-god and divine enemy. He is enraged by the blinding of his son Polyphemus and attacks Odysseus with storms and shipwrecks.
Zeus, king of the gods, makes key decisions about Odysseus’s fate and punishes the crew for killing Helios’s cattle. Hermes acts as messenger, ordering Calypso to free Odysseus and giving him the herb moly to resist Circe’s magic. Helios, the sun god, is wronged when his sacred cattle are killed and demands payback. The sea divinity Ino (Leucothea) helps the shipwrecked Odysseus with a protective veil.
Other heroic figures include Menelaus, who tells Telemachus that Odysseus is alive but detained, and Nestor, who welcomes Telemachus and tells him about the Greek leaders’ returns.
Among the monstrous enemies are Polyphemus, the Cyclops and son of Poseidon, who eats some of Odysseus’s men and calls on his father to curse him; Scylla, the many-headed monster who snatches sailors from a cliff; Charybdis, the whirlpool that threatens to swallow Odysseus’s ship; and the Laestrygonians, cannibal giants who destroy almost all of his fleet.
Supporting groups include the Phaeacians, who are model hosts. They entertain Odysseus and carry him home. Odysseus’s own crew often disobey and act foolishly, which repeatedly delays the voyage. All of them die before he reaches Ithaca.
Notable creatures include the Sirens, whose beautiful song lures sailors to their deaths. Odysseus hears them safely by being tied to the mast while his crew’s ears are stopped with wax. The sacred cattle of Helios are also important. Their killing leads Zeus to destroy the ship.
Throughout the story, Odysseus appears as a wandering hero, planner, and avenger. Penelope is a faithful wife and guardian of the household. Telemachus is an emerging heir and restorer of order. Athena is a divine patron and planner. Poseidon is an enemy enforcing a curse. The suitors are internal usurpers and breakers of hospitality. The monsters and supernatural beings are outside trials that mark each stage of the voyage.
Variants and Versions
The Odyssey is the main and most complete story of Odysseus’s return. It stands beside other epic and later traditions that add or change episodes beyond or alongside the Homeric story.
The Homeric Odyssey, preserved in 24 books, gives the standard archaic Greek epic sequence. It includes the wanderings, the Phaeacian episode, the disguised return to Ithaca, the killing of the suitors, and the divine reconciliation.
The lost Nostoi epics, known only from summaries and references, are said to have told the returns of various Greek heroes, including Odysseus. They seem to have had different emphases and may have included other episodes, but the surviving details are fragmentary.
The Telegony, another lost epic known from later summaries, continues Odysseus’s story beyond the Odyssey. It tells of further travels and a later marriage and ends with his death at the hands of Telegonus, his son by Circe. This continuation lies outside the Homeric poem.
Non-Homeric stories sometimes changed the order or presence of certain adventures, such as where particular island episodes appear or whether they appear at all. However, the evidence for these versions is limited and often indirect.
In the Homeric Odyssey, Odysseus lives, regains Ithaca, and sees Athena impose peace. In later epic tradition, especially the Telegony, his eventual death at Telegonus’s hands changes the long-term result of his nostos, though this happens after the events in the Odyssey.
Because many of these other epics are lost, knowledge of their versions of Odysseus’s return comes from later summaries, scholia, and other secondary reports rather than full narratives.
Chronology
In myth, the Odyssey takes place after the Trojan War, in the later part of the Heroic Age. It comes after the events of the Trojan War told in the Iliad and other Trojan Cycle epics. It belongs to the wider Nostoi cycle about the Greek leaders’ returns and comes before later legendary continuations of Odysseus’s life, such as those in the Telegony.
Its background includes myths like the Judgment of Paris and the abduction of Helen, which started the Trojan War; the war itself, including Odysseus’s deeds and the Wooden Horse; and the immediate departures of the Greek forces from Troy and the different fates of leaders like Agamemnon and Menelaus.
After the poem’s events, later stories describe more travels and the death of Odysseus, as in the Telegony. Some also look at the later lives of Telemachus and the next generation in Ithaca.
Inside the story, the Odyssey covers about ten years of wandering after the ten-year Trojan War. This is followed by a short but intense series of events in Ithaca that ends with the killing of the suitors and the making of peace.
The Odyssey in its surviving form is usually dated to the late 8th or early 7th century BCE, though it preserves older oral traditions.
Within the poem’s own timeline, Odysseus’s wanderings in Books 9–12 are told in retrospect to the Phaeacians. The events in Ithaca, including the Telemachy, happen roughly at the same time as the end of his stay on Ogygia.
Motifs and Themes
The Odyssey uses many themes and motifs. A main theme is nostos, the longing for and achievement of homecoming. Another is xenia, the keeping or breaking of hospitality.
The poem shows cunning intelligence (metis) as a key heroic quality, set against simple strength. It looks at loyalty and faithfulness in the family and household, divine justice, divine favor and punishment, the importance of identity, recognition, and disguise, and the trials and costs of heroic life.
Common story patterns include the wandering hero tested by a series of wonders and monsters; the faithful wife surrounded by suitors but staying loyal; the coming-of-age journey of the hero’s son in the Telemachy; and the disguised king returning to a household taken over by others.
Recognition scenes are important. They are marked by signs such as Odysseus’s scar, the marriage bed, and shared memories. The katabasis, or descent to the Underworld, is another key motif. Odysseus goes there to gain prophetic knowledge.
Certain symbols appear again and again. The sea stands for uncertainty, divine power, and testing. Odysseus’s bow marks rightful kingship and his unique identity. The immovable marriage bed stands for the stability and secrecy of the marriage bond. Food and feasting show proper or improper hospitality.
The poem uses a framed story. Odysseus tells his wanderings in retrospect, and the narrative moves between scenes of wandering and scenes in Ithaca. These strands come together in the reunion and show a movement from disorder at sea and at home to restored order under divine approval.
The characters take on familiar roles. Odysseus is a trickster-hero and wise king. Penelope is a faithful and resourceful wife. Athena is a guiding goddess and patron of intelligence. Poseidon is an angry sea-god and major enemy.
In terms of ethics and religion, the poem stresses the results of impiety and arrogance, especially against gods and sacred property. It praises prudence, self-control, and obedience to divine warnings. It also stresses the importance of honoring guests and strangers according to divine law.
Many of these themes appear through contrasts. Good and bad hosts are set against each other, such as Phaeacians versus Cyclops, and suitors versus loyal servants. Wise and foolish choices by Odysseus and his men are also set side by side.
Setting and Locations
The main settings in the Odyssey are Ithaca, Ogygia, and Scheria.
Ithaca is a small island kingdom in the Ionian Sea. It is Odysseus’s homeland and the main goal of his nostos. It is where Penelope waits, where the suitors take over, where Odysseus returns in disguise, and where order is finally restored.
Ogygia is a remote mythic island where the nymph Calypso keeps Odysseus. It stands for stasis and the temptation to give up the journey home.
Scheria, the land of the Phaeacians, is a semi-mythic island and Odysseus’s last stop before home. It is an idealized place of hospitality where he tells his wanderings and receives passage to Ithaca.
Other real or traditionally located places include Troy, the historical-mythic city from which Odysseus sets out and which stays present in songs and memories; Pylos, Nestor’s kingdom and Telemachus’s first stop in his search; and Sparta (Lacedaemon), Menelaus and Helen’s kingdom, where Telemachus learns that Odysseus is alive.
The poem also shows a series of mythic locations during the voyage. These include the land of the Cicones, where an early raid brings losses and divine anger; the land of the Lotus-Eaters, a place of forgetfulness where Odysseus must drag his men back; and the island of the Cyclopes, where he meets Polyphemus and brings on Poseidon’s curse.
Other places are Aeolia, the island of Aeolus, keeper of the winds, whose gift is wasted by the crew; the land of the Laestrygonians, where cannibal giants almost wipe out Odysseus’s fleet; and Aeaea, Circe’s island, a place of transformation, advice, and preparation for the Underworld journey.
The entrance to the Underworld lies near Oceanus. There, Odysseus performs rites and speaks with the dead, especially Tiresias. Thrinacia is the island of Helios’s cattle, where the crew’s fatal disobedience takes place.
Real-world locations linked to the story include Ithaca in the Ionian Islands, Pylos in the southwestern Peloponnese, Sparta in Laconia, and Troy in northwestern Anatolia as later identified.
The route of the journey runs from Troy westward and southward through various islands and seas. It loops through fantastical places before reaching Ogygia, then goes on to Scheria and finally to Ithaca.
The cosmic side of the setting appears in Hades, the Underworld, the realm of the dead. There Odysseus gains prophetic knowledge and meets the shades of heroes and kin.
Liminal spaces such as shorelines and caves, including Polyphemus’s cave and the Ithacan shore, act as thresholds between safety and danger, disguise and revelation, exile and homecoming.
Many of the voyage locations mix real geography with mythic detail, and their exact mapping has been discussed since antiquity.
Prophecies and Curses
Prophecies and curses are key to the course of the Odyssey.
In the Underworld, the seer Tiresias gives Odysseus two major prophecies. First, he warns him not to harm the cattle of Helios. He foretells that if this warning is broken, more troubles at sea will follow, and that Odysseus will come home late, in distress, and without his companions. This comes true when the starving crew kills the sacred cattle on Thrinacia. Helios then demands revenge, and Zeus destroys the ship so that only Odysseus survives and returns after long suffering.
Second, Tiresias says that Odysseus must later make an inland journey carrying an oar and offer sacrifices to Poseidon to gain a peaceful old age. This future is not shown within the Odyssey itself.
Among the curses, the most important is Polyphemus’s curse. After Odysseus blinds him and reveals his name, Polyphemus calls on his father Poseidon to make sure that Odysseus returns home late and in misery, having lost his companions and ships, and finding trouble in his house. Odysseus’s long wanderings, the loss of all his men, and the suitors’ control of his home match this curse closely.
Oaths and vows also affect events. Odysseus and his men are bound by warnings and an implied duty not to harm Helios’s cattle on Thrinacia. When they break this under the pressure of hunger while Odysseus sleeps, Helios demands payback and Zeus destroys their ship, killing the crew and leaving Odysseus alone to go on.
Aftermath and Consequences
Right after Odysseus’s return and the killing in his hall, the suitors are dead and the disloyal servants punished. Odysseus is reunited with Penelope and reveals himself to his loyal followers.
He then visits his father Laertes, strengthening the restored family bond across three generations.
In the longer run, Athena, with Zeus’s approval, imposes peace between Odysseus and the families of the dead suitors. This stops a continuing blood-feud and confirms his kingship in Ithaca under divine approval.
For the dynasty and politics, the removal of the suitors secures Telemachus’s place as future ruler and keeps Ithaca stable by ending factional violence.
On a divine level, the story shows that the gods ultimately support just order and punish broken hospitality and sacrilege. It also shows that Poseidon’s anger is limited by the decisions of the Olympian assembly.
The events change the status of the main characters. Odysseus goes from exile and presumed death to recognized king and husband. Telemachus goes from threatened youth to active defender of the household. Penelope goes from a besieged wife to one whose loyalty is openly confirmed and honored.
Later epic stories, such as the Telegony, carry Odysseus’s story beyond the peace in Ithaca, including his eventual death. Some accounts tell of further fates of Telemachus and other Ithacans, building on the restored order at the end of the poem.
Within the Odyssey itself, the gods’ imposition of peace acts as a clear ending. It marks the close of the cycle of violence that began with the Trojan War and was extended by Odysseus’s absence.
Sources and Transmission
The Odyssey first appears as the Homeric epic traditionally linked to Homer. This poem is the main source for the story of Odysseus’s return.
The chief evidence is the complete text of the Odyssey itself, especially Books 1–24. Other archaic and classical authors, including Hesiod, lyric poets, and tragedians, also mention its episodes and assume that audiences know them.
Other sources include later summaries of the Epic Cycle, such as accounts of the Nostoi and the Telegony preserved in Proclus and other compilers; scholia on the Odyssey and related ancient notes; and mythographical works like the Bibliotheca attributed to Apollodorus, which tell Odysseus’s wanderings and return in brief form.
The earliest appearance of the Odyssey is in the archaic Greek period. The text in its current form is usually placed in the late 8th or early 7th century BCE.
The poem survives through a fairly complete medieval manuscript tradition. These manuscripts show some variation in wording and small episodes but no different overall plot.
References to lost epics of the Nostoi and the Telegony show that there were other or longer versions of Odysseus’s story, but these are known only from summaries.
Evidence for oral tradition is strong. The Odyssey’s formulaic language, repeated type-scenes, and performance markers point to roots in an earlier oral epic tradition. Ancient reports also present the Homeric epics as works of oral performance before they were written down.
Art also preserves the story. Archaic and classical vase paintings show episodes such as the blinding of Polyphemus, the Sirens, Scylla, and recognition scenes. Reliefs and other artworks show Odysseus’s return and the suitors. These images show how widely known and popular the story was.
Over time, the Odyssey became a key text in Greek education. It was passed down through antiquity, the Byzantine period, and into modern study. Its episodes were often excerpted, retold, and adapted in later Greek and Roman literature.
Interpretations and Scholarship
The Odyssey has been read and discussed in many ways.
It is often seen as a model story of homecoming and the return of social order after the disruptions of war. It is also seen as a celebration of metis, or cunning intelligence, as a main heroic quality alongside physical strength.
Some readers look at the hospitality scenes and Greek ritual rules of xenia. They see the story as reinforcing religious and social duties toward strangers and suppliants.
Structuralist readings focus on pairs of opposites such as home and away, civilization and wildness, order and chaos, and mortal and divine, with Odysseus’s journey moving between these sides. Myth-and-ritual approaches sometimes relate the story to seasonal cycles or rites of passage, especially in Telemachus’s growth.
Psychological and symbolic readings treat the voyage as an inner journey of identity. In these readings, monsters and temptations stand for aspects of human desire, fear, and memory. Penelope’s weaving and unweaving is seen as symbolically controlling time and the story by delaying the ending until Odysseus returns.
Historical and political approaches place the poem in the setting of early Greek colonization and seafaring. They suggest that its geography reflects both real knowledge and imagination of the wider Mediterranean. They also look at its picture of kingship, justice, and the use of violence to restore order.
Comparative mythology studies link the wandering hero motif to wider Indo-European and Near Eastern stories of sea journeys and otherworld trips. They compare the katabasis episode with other descents to the underworld in Mediterranean myths.
Discussions also cover the poem’s unity versus possible composite origin, including whether parts such as the Telemachy or the Phaeacian episode once stood alone. Other topics include how far the voyage’s geography reflects real places or purely imagined ones, and the portrayal of gender, especially Penelope’s character and the treatment of figures like Circe and Calypso.
Many modern commentaries and monographs focus on the Odyssey’s language, structure, and themes. Together they form a major body of Homeric study.
Cultural Influence
The Odyssey has had a strong impact on literature, art, and cultural norms.
In antiquity, Greek and Roman writers often referred to or reworked its episodes. These include tragedians, Hellenistic poets, and Roman authors such as Virgil and Ovid. Virgil’s Aeneid, in particular, closely engages with the Odyssey. It echoes its wanderings and offers a Roman counterpart in Aeneas’s travels. Later Greek novels and Latin prose works also use motifs of shipwreck, wandering, and reunion that recall Odysseus’s story.
In visual art, archaic and classical vase painters showed key scenes such as the blinding of Polyphemus, the Sirens, Scylla, and Odysseus’s recognition. The poem thus became a major source for narrative imagery. Roman wall paintings and mosaics continued to show Odyssey episodes, which points to the story’s lasting popularity.
Although it is mainly a literary work, the Odyssey also reinforced cultural norms of hospitality and piety in Greek religious practice. Its scenes of sacrifice, supplication, and divine justice helped shape shared ideas of proper behavior toward gods and strangers.
In education, it became a core text in classical and later Greek schooling. It was used to teach language and ethics, and to show examples of both good and bad behavior. Episodes highlight virtues such as endurance, prudence, and loyalty, and warn against impiety and excess.
Various Mediterranean regions claimed links to Odyssey sites and wove the story into local identities and place-legends. Ithaca and nearby islands in particular developed ties with Odysseus’s homeland.
More broadly, the Odyssey’s structure and motifs have shaped story patterns far beyond antiquity. It has served as a model for journey and return tales in later European literature.
Modern Retellings
In modern times, the Odyssey has inspired many adaptations and new versions in different genres and media.
Many novels, poems, and plays retell or rethink its story. They often use different points of view or move the story into modern settings.
Among well-known literary retellings, James Joyce’s novel Ulysses (1922) moves structural and thematic elements of the Odyssey to a single day in Dublin. It maps characters and episodes onto modern city life. Margaret Atwood’s The Penelopiad (2005) tells the story from the viewpoints of Penelope and the hanged maids, bringing out gender and power issues that are present in the ancient epic.
Film and television have created various versions titled or based on The Odyssey. These dramatize the main episodes of Odysseus’s voyage and return, often focusing on the monsters and divine actions.
The poem has also inspired several operas and stage adaptations. These choose and dramatize key episodes such as the Sirens, Circe, and the recognition scenes, often stressing their musical and symbolic sides.
Beyond direct adaptations, the Odyssey’s pattern of a hard journey and homecoming is often used in modern stories as a model for personal or group quests.
Many recent retellings highlight perspectives or themes—such as Penelope’s voice, post-war trauma, or colonial encounters—that are implied or secondary in the ancient epic. These works show the story’s continuing flexibility and appeal.