Epic poem recounting a brief period during the final year of the Trojan War.
Overview
The Iliad, also called The Iliad or Ilias, is an epic poem from the Trojan War cycle and is one of the major epic poems of Greek mythology. It takes place in the late stages of the Trojan War, set in the heroic age before the historical Archaic period, and is a key work in the larger Trojan War tradition.
The story covers only a short span of time in the final year of the war. It focuses on the wrath of Achilles and how this affects both the Greeks (Achaeans) and the Trojans. The poem tells of the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon, Achilles’ withdrawal from battle, the heavy losses suffered by the Achaeans, the exploits and death of Hector, and Achilles’ brief return to fighting. It ends with King Priam ransoming Hector’s body.
The Iliad does not describe the whole Trojan War. Instead, it shows one segment of the conflict, framed by the actions of the gods and the power of fate, and it finishes before the fall of Troy. As an epic poem, it is a central text in the Trojan War cycle and a defining picture of the heroic age.
Background
The background of the Iliad comes from earlier events and rivalries among the gods that set off the Trojan War. Important earlier episodes include the Judgment of Paris, where Paris gives a golden apple to Aphrodite and gains Helen’s love, angering Hera and Athena. This leads to Helen’s abduction or elopement from Menelaus’ house in Sparta to Troy with Paris. The oath of Tyndareus, sworn by Helen’s former suitors to defend her chosen husband, then provides the reason for a pan-Hellenic expedition against Troy. These events bring about the gathering of the Achaean forces under Agamemnon, their long voyage to Troy, and nine years of war marked by raids on nearby cities and the capture of Chryseis and Briseis as war prizes.
The causes of the war and the poem’s main crisis mix divine and human actions. The rivalry of Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite leads to the Judgment of Paris. Paris’ choice of Aphrodite and his taking of Helen break the rules of guest-friendship and marriage. Agamemnon’s claim to authority over the Achaean coalition ends with his seizure of Briseis from Achilles, which sparks Achilles’ wrath. The genealogies place the main characters in famous heroic families: Achilles is the son of the mortal Peleus and the sea-goddess Thetis, linking him to both mortals and gods. Hector and Paris are sons of Priam and Hecuba, at the center of the Trojan royal house. Agamemnon and Menelaus, sons of Atreus, lead the Atreid dynasty and are leading Achaean commanders.
On a political and divine level, the war sets a coalition of Achaean kings under Agamemnon against the rich, walled city of Troy and its allies. The Olympian gods are split in their support for Greeks or Trojans. Zeus tries to keep a balance or carry out fate while answering the requests of other gods. Troy’s final destruction is fixed by destiny, but the timing and details of events depend on both gods and mortals. The setting includes the Achaean camp on the shore near Troy, with beached ships and defenses, and Troy itself as a wealthy city ruled by Priam and aided by allies from many regions.
Other related myths form the wider frame around the Iliad. These include the Judgment of Paris, the taking of Helen, the gathering of the Achaean host at Aulis, the sacrifice of Iphigenia in some versions, Achilles’ earlier exploits around Troy, and the later fall of the city, which the Iliad does not show. Oaths and curses also shape the background, such as the oath of Tyndareus that binds Helen’s suitors to defend her husband, and the ancestral curse on the house of Atreus that hangs over Agamemnon’s rule. Together, these elements create the long-term causes of the war and the divine and family tensions that make the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon a crisis for the whole Achaean expedition.
Plot Summary
The plot of the Iliad follows the results of Achilles’ wrath after his quarrel with Agamemnon. It shows the suffering of the Achaeans while Achilles stays out of battle, the rise of Hector as the Trojan champion, the death of Patroclus, Achilles’ return to the fighting and his killing of Hector, and finally the ransom of Hector’s body by Priam. The poem ends with Hector’s funeral, not with the fall of Troy.
The story moves through clear stages. In Books 1–2, a plague sent by Apollo strikes the Achaean camp. An assembly reveals its cause, and the quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon leads to Achilles’ withdrawal from battle. The catalog of forces follows. Books 3–7 show early clashes, including the duel between Paris and Menelaus, Hector’s rise as Trojan champion, and several truces and single combats. In Books 8–10, Zeus partly favors the Trojans, who gain major successes, while the Achaeans fall into deep trouble and turn to night operations. Books 11–16 show heavier fighting, the wounding of key Achaean leaders, and Patroclus’ entry into battle in Achilles’ armor, ending with his death at Hector’s hands with Apollo’s help. Books 17–19 focus on the struggle over Patroclus’ body, Achilles’ intense grief, his reconciliation with Agamemnon, the return of Briseis, and his preparation for battle in new armor. In Books 20–22, Achilles’ aristeia unfolds as he kills many Trojans, fights the river god Scamander, and finally chases and kills Hector, then abuses Hector’s corpse. Books 23–24 end the poem with funeral games for Patroclus and Priam’s daring visit to Achilles to ransom Hector’s body, followed by Hector’s funeral rites in Troy.
The main conflict begins when Agamemnon, forced by Apollo’s plague to return Chryseis to her father Chryses, takes Briseis from Achilles as compensation. This insult makes Achilles withdraw from battle and ask his mother Thetis to persuade Zeus to punish the Achaeans. Zeus agrees to give the Trojans success until the Achaeans feel how much they need Achilles. Important events include Apollo’s first plague on the Achaean camp, Agamemnon’s return of Chryseis and seizure of Briseis, and Zeus’ decision to honor Achilles by helping the Trojans.
The duel between Paris and Menelaus, from which Aphrodite rescues Paris, fails to end the war. Hector becomes the leading Trojan warrior, duels Ajax, and leads attacks on the Achaean fortifications. With help from Zeus and other gods, the Trojans push the Achaeans back to their ships and threaten to burn them. In response, Agamemnon sends an embassy—Odysseus, Phoenix, and Ajax—to Achilles with gifts and the promise to return Briseis, but Achilles refuses to return. The wounding of major Achaean leaders, including Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus, makes the situation worse.
Moved by the Achaeans’ danger, Patroclus convinces Achilles to let him fight in Achilles’ armor to rally the troops. Patroclus drives the Trojans back and kills Sarpedon, but Hector, with Apollo’s help, kills him. When Achilles hears of Patroclus’ death, he is overcome with grief and rage. Thetis gets new armor for him from Hephaestus. Achilles makes peace with Agamemnon, accepts Briseis and other gifts, and decides to avenge Patroclus even though he knows his own death is fated.
Achilles returns to battle, kills many Trojans, and fills the river with corpses until the river god Scamander rises against him. Hephaestus saves Achilles by sending fire. As Zeus allows more open divine action, the gods fight each other. Achilles then chases Hector around Troy’s walls, kills him in single combat with Athena’s help, and ties Hector’s body to his chariot, dragging it around Patroclus’ tomb and the city walls in a long act of desecration.
The story reaches its peak when Achilles kills Hector outside Troy and abuses his body. This is the highest point of Achilles’ wrath and revenge. The resolution comes when Priam, guided by Hermes, secretly enters the Achaean camp and begs Achilles for Hector’s body, appealing to their shared mortality and his pain as a father. Achilles feels pity, returns Hector’s body, and grants a truce for mourning. The poem ends with Hector’s solemn funeral in Troy.
Later epics and traditions continue the story with Achilles’ death, the Trojan Horse, and the sack of Troy, but these are outside the Iliad itself. By the end of the poem, Achilles’ wrath has caused heavy losses on both sides, including the deaths of Patroclus and Hector. The Achaeans regain control of the battlefield through Achilles’ return, but Troy has not yet fallen. The story closes not with final victory, but with shared grief and a brief moment of reconciliation between enemies.
Key Figures
The Iliad includes many human and divine characters, but a few stand at the center of the story. Achilles is the greatest Achaean warrior. His anger at being dishonored by Agamemnon drives the main conflict. He withdraws from battle, which leads to severe Achaean losses, then returns to avenge the death of his closest companion Patroclus, kills Hector, and finally shows compassion to Priam in the last scenes of the poem. Agamemnon, leader of the Achaean coalition, causes Achilles’ wrath by seizing Briseis and later tries to make peace. He remains a powerful but often criticized commander.
Hector, the main Trojan warrior and defender of Troy, leads Trojan attacks, kills Patroclus, and is later killed by Achilles in the major martial climax of the story. His funeral closes the poem. Patroclus, Achilles’ closest companion, goes into battle in Achilles’ armor to save the Achaeans, is killed by Hector with divine help, and becomes the direct cause of Achilles’ return to fighting. Priam, the elderly king of Troy and father of Hector and Paris, bravely enters the Achaean camp in the final book to ransom Hector’s body. His act moves Achilles to pity and allows the story to reach its resolution.
Among the other human characters, Odysseus is a clever Achaean hero who gives advice, serves as an envoy in the embassy to Achilles, and leads various missions. He often helps manage disputes among the commanders. Ajax (Telamonian Ajax) is a strong Achaean warrior who duels Hector, defends the ships, and joins the embassy to Achilles. He is a key defender of the Achaeans while Achilles is absent. Menelaus, king of Sparta and husband of Helen, has the personal grievance that lies behind the war. He fights Paris in single combat and takes part in major battles.
Paris (Alexandros), the Trojan prince whose earlier choice in the Judgment of Paris and taking of Helen started the war, duels Menelaus and often appears less heroic than Hector, causing tension within Troy. Helen, now living in Troy with Paris, is the immediate cause of the conflict. She appears in scenes on the city walls and in the palace, where she reflects on her role and the war. Nestor, the oldest of the Achaeans, gives counsel, encourages younger warriors, and helps organize embassies and plans. Diomedes is a leading Achaean warrior who has a major aristeia early in the poem, wounding gods and important Trojans and showing the scale of the fighting while Achilles is away.
Andromache, Hector’s wife, appears in domestic scenes that highlight the human cost of the war and hint at her future suffering after Hector’s death. Briseis, the captive woman first awarded to Achilles and then taken by Agamemnon, is the direct cause of Achilles’ anger and withdrawal. Chryses, a priest of Apollo and father of Chryseis, starts the opening crisis when his plea for his daughter is rejected. He prays to Apollo for revenge, which brings the plague. Chryseis, the captive held by Agamemnon, must be returned to her father, and her replacement by Briseis leads to the quarrel with Achilles.
The gods also play major roles in the Iliad. Zeus, king of the gods, oversees divine actions, grants Thetis’ request to honor Achilles by helping the Trojans for a time, and watches over the working out of fate. Hera, queen of the gods, hates Troy because of the Judgment of Paris and supports the Achaeans, sometimes plotting with Athena against Zeus’ wishes. Athena, goddess of wisdom and war, is a firm ally of the Achaeans. She stops Achilles from killing Agamemnon early in the poem, helps key heroes, and aids Achilles in defeating Hector.
Apollo, who favors the Trojans, sends the plague on the Achaeans at Chryses’ request, helps Hector and other Trojans, and plays a key part in Patroclus’ death. Thetis, a sea-goddess and mother of Achilles, speaks to Zeus to honor her son and later gets new armor for him from Hephaestus. Hephaestus, the smith-god, forges Achilles’ impressive armor and shield and saves him from the river god Scamander by sending fire. Aphrodite, goddess of love, protects Paris, rescues him from his duel with Menelaus, and supports the Trojans because of the Judgment of Paris. Ares, god of war, sometimes supports the Trojans and later fights among the gods when they openly join the battle. Poseidon, god of the sea, at one point helps the Achaeans against Zeus’ earlier decision, showing the divisions among the gods. Hermes, the messenger god, safely guides Priam through the Achaean camp to Achilles’ hut during the ransom of Hector. Scamander (Xanthus), the river god of the Trojan plain, rises against Achilles in anger at the slaughter filling his waters, leading to a major clash between hero and god.
The heroic participants include leading warriors on both sides, such as Achilles, Patroclus, Agamemnon, Menelaus, Odysseus, Ajax, Diomedes, Nestor, Hector, Paris, Sarpedon, and Aeneas. Certain characters take on opposing roles within this group. Agamemnon stands as an antagonist to Achilles by dishonoring him and causing his withdrawal, even though they are allies in the larger war. Hector is the main Trojan opponent of the Achaeans and Achilles. He kills Patroclus and becomes the focus of Achilles’ revenge. Apollo acts as an antagonist to the Achaeans through the plague and his help to the Trojans, especially in Patroclus’ death.
The main groups in the story are the Achaeans, the Trojans, and the Trojan allies. The Achaeans are a coalition besieging Troy, and their fortunes rise and fall with Achilles’ presence and divine favor. The Trojans defend the city under Priam and Hector. They gain an advantage while Achilles is absent and suffer greatly after he returns. The Trojan allies, including forces led by Sarpedon and Aeneas, strengthen Trojan numbers and provide notable warriors.
Among the notable creatures is Xanthus, one of Achilles’ divine horses. Hera briefly gives him the power of speech so he can foretell Achilles’ coming death. The story gives each figure a clear role: Achilles as the wrathful hero, Agamemnon as the flawed king and commander, Hector as the noble defender of the city, Patroclus as the loyal companion, and Priam as the supplicant king and grieving father.